Much has been written, and is being written all the time, about the large-scale efforts to fight climate change, and why they hopelessly fall short of the mark. At the same time, however, this is not one single fight, contained to the realms of high politics.

Regular citizens, activists, people from all walks of life, have also been doing what they can to stem the tide, to make the world more prepared, to make it more sustainable. We have chosen to sit down with one of these people for an interview.

Meet Dr. Ruxandra Lupu. She is a distinguished researcher, with a PhD in film/video and photographic arts from the University of Leeds. Professionally, she’s been working at the intersection between business and academia for a long time. She describes herself as “a traditional printmaker and digital humanities researcher”.

In 2020, she founded Eithne, a company that allows her to marry her academic and professional knowledge of textiles and printmaking, with the push for sustainability. You can read more about her extensive background here.

More interestingly from our point of view, Dr. Lupu has been disseminating her hard-won knowledge. Together with international partners, Eithne is implementing Sustainique, a project that aims to teach advanced and sustainable textile production techniques to “VET providers, textile designers, entrepreneurs, employees, and trainers in professional fashion firms”.

Of course, supporting research, education, and knowledge dissemination is one of the things the EU arguably does best, and we also believe it’s one of the essential tools in building a shared European home. That’s why we sat down with Dr. Lupu for a chat about sustainability and textiles.

Question: Which aspects of sustainability does your work address?

Answer: My work initially did not explicitly focus on sustainability. As a printmaker, I engaged in craftsmanship through textile printing. My focus shifted to sustainability when I researched the impact of innovation for a British media cluster. This project highlighted the importance of greening media technology and achieving sustainability through creative storytelling and processes.

Since then, my attention has turned completely into sustainability in arts and crafts, both as a researcher and an independent entrepreneur. In the past two years, my work has concentrated on the craft and textile fields, exploring sustainability in competencies, technologies (like haptics), storytelling, and innovation practices.

I particularly focus on responsible and hidden innovation in relation to sustainability. My approach now combines multimodal and interdisciplinary methods to address sustainability in arts and crafts, with an emphasis on care and responsibility, especially in textiles and fashion.

Q: How do you describe sustainable textile innovations, and their role within a more responsible fashion industry?

A: From a theoretical perspective, textile innovations are novel textiles created through new materials, designs, or production processes. The concept of novelty can be tricky, since changes occur daily. For example, is a textile fiber from an ancient crop innovative? Is engineered yarn from orange peels innovative? Both can be seen as innovative, but ensuring these products are durable, caring, and respectful to the environment and communities is key.

Labels like GOTS and Oeko-Tex should certify products, but their transparency and scope, especially in addressing social and economic aspects like fair trade and worker safety, can be limited. While traceability is vital, it’s challenging due to the complex production chains in textiles. We need comprehensive sustainability measurements, considering cultural, social, environmental, and economic factors in developing textile innovations.

Q: What is the state of the art of adoption of textile innovations in Europe?

A: Europe has high ambitions for textile innovations. Initiatives like Master programs at IAAC Spain and Boras University Sweden, and EU-funded projects such as WORTH, DeFine, and Re-Fashion, support this goal. Institutions like Fashion for Change advocate for a more resilient industry.

However, impact measurement and consistency of innovations lag behind. Many new products are not widely adopted due to low market availability, high prices, and risks associated with new materials. Young designers are more open to these innovations, often for limited editions or unique products, but mass adoption remains distant.

Q: How can material libraries contribute to fostering the uptake of textile innovations? What are the challenges they face?

A: Material libraries are places of discovery, stimulating designers by offering textiles and materials instead of books. Europe has fewer than ten material libraries, mainly serving architects and engineers, with few focusing on textiles. In 2022, a project with the University of Florence showed that designers are curious and open to new materials. However, material libraries face challenges like staff shortages, lack of funds, and a need for specialised experts. Educational institutions, especially at VET level, play a crucial role in promoting sustainability and innovation in textiles and fashion.

Question: How should holistic education be set up in terms of fostering the uptake of sustainable textile innovation?

A: Holistic education should encompass both external and deep knowledge. Designers need to understand, not only the physical properties of materials, but also how they were created, by whom, and their environmental and social impacts. This multifaceted knowledge helps designers make informed, sustainable choices. Future designers should be educated to assess materials’ properties for their specific needs, and understand their broader impact on communities and ecosystems. This approach fosters a resilient and caring practice in the textile industry.

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The Vespa on the Amalfi Coast, the gelato in Florence or the colourful houses of the Cinque Terre—we all know the cliché images of Italy on travel portals. This is no wonder that Italy ranks fifth worldwide for tourists with around 64.7 million international tourist arrivals in 2019, just behind France, Spain, the USA, and China.

But in times of the pandemic, it is advisable to avoid crowds as much as possible. At the same time, however, we also deserve to free our minds from the virus for a few days after being locked down. This is possible even in heavily frequented tourist destinations like Italy, for example in the Marche region. Unlike Lombardy or Sardinia, the region located in the centre of the country rarely makes it into the international press or pop-up advertising on Google. However, the 1.5 million inhabitants enjoy 173 kilometres of Adriatic coast and little cultural treasures—and so do the tourists who “get lost” in this region! But what is there to discover?

Fermo – Between the Middle Ages and the Roman Empire

Turns out there’s more than you might expect. The town of Fermo is a small jewel of the region. Located on top of a hill, the balconies of the city offer a panoramic view. In addition, the narrow streets are adorned with medieval walls. Culturally, Fermo offers an art gallery full of late Gothic paintings and one of Italy’s most renowned libraries full of ancient books and manuscripts. The 18th-century theatre “dell’Aquila” is considered  to be one of the most beautiful in the Marche and hosts operas and plays.

Aside from its cultural offer, Fermo also hides a historic treasure: the large Roman cisterns are a patrimony of the Augustan age. The cisterns have a maximum capacity of about 15,000 cubic metres which makes them the largest ever built by the Romans when it comes to surface area. But what if nature is calling instead?

Conero Natural Park – The Two Sisters and the Black Sand

What sounds like the title of a fairy tale are actually two different excursion destinations in the Conero Natural Park, which is located on the Adriatic coast. While there are various corners to discover, the Spiaggia delle Due Sorelle has to be one of the most well-known. Its two cliffs are called “due Sorelle” (“two sisters”) because they seem to have the shape of two praying nuns. The beach, which can be reached by ferry, was named one of the 10 most beautiful beaches in Italy in 2013.

Another destination is the Sassi Neri near Sirolo. This beach is not a real sandy beach and rather it is a stretch of coast with many tiny stones. From the parking lot, it is about a half-hour hike to the beautiful waters. The rather steep path is tough but leads directly through the flora and fauna of the national park. Guess the unavoidable sweating is worth it! But what if the city is calling instead?

San Benedetto del Tronto – From Sightseeing to the Beach

San Benedetto del Tronto, a city on the Adriatic Sea is located towards the southeast tip of the Marche, just before the border with Abruzzo. Founded in the 10th century, the city hosts one of the most important fishing ports in Italy. Seafaring is of great historical importance as demonstrated in detail across the various museums in the city. If the sea was was conquered, the land would subsequently be protected by two castles which guarded the city from any possible threats. If it is too hot for sightseeing, San Benedetto del Tronto also offers an 8-kilometre-long sandy beach and there are approximately 7,000 palm trees in the city for tourists to admire.

To our dismay, traveling remains difficult in today’s time. But perhaps, the Marche awoke the distant dreamer in you. Once we can pack our bags again and cross mountains as if it was nothing, you might find your way to the Marche, Italy’s lesser-known region. Crystal-clear waters, cultural offers, and a fresh plate of pasta are waiting for you!

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Ryszard Kapuściński: A Life

Ryszard Kapuściński was born on March 4, 1932, in Pinsk, which at the time was part of Poland. After the Soviet occupation of the city in 1939, his family, fearing deportation for being Polish, moved to Otwock, near Warsaw.

His family was not rich, nor did he have any notable relatives. His life wasn’t much different from that of other young Poles under the communist regime of the Polish People’s Republic. That is, until he started working as a journalist in 1950. When he began working as a reporter for the Sztandar Mlodych, a youth-targeted pro-Soviet newspaper, and later for the Polish Press Agency, little did he know that it would be the start of nearly thirty years of adventures around the world.

It was during these travels that Kapuściński witnessed the transformation of the world during the Cold War: the African decolonization and its coups and civil wars, the Iranian Revolution, and the political crisis in South American countries. Once he came back to Poland, he lived long enough to see his country struggling to overthrow the communist regime. He then also witnessed the transition to democracy and the accession to the European Union. He died on January 23, 2007.

Another Day of Life

In Another Day of Life, Kapuściński recounts his life during the autumn of 1975 in Angola. That was the year when, after a long and bloody war, the African state gained independence. With its newfound independence,  Angola nevertheless struggled with its identity. Another war was raging, soured by the departure of Portuguese troops and people: that between Angolan communists and anti-communists.

On one side, there was the left-leaning MPLA (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola). The MPLA was in charge of negotiating the independence of the country and wanted to assure it a socialist-leaning structure. On the other, the UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) and FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) were against the creation of a People’s Republic. The struggle was clearly one of the proxy wars between the global Western and Eastern blocks at the time. It is no surprise, then, that direct support was given to the two factions by Cuba and South Africa.

After describing the miserable state of Luanda, the capital of Angola, as Portuguese settlers left the city and hostile forces started to siege the suburbs, Kapuściński travelled to the front line. There he witnessed the apparently unstoppable advance of anti-communist forces and armoured South-African formations, all while escaping death on several occasion. The end of the conflict came when Cuban soldiers and supplies arrived from across the Atlantic, bringing balance to the conflict. This allowed the first president of Angola, MPLA’s Agostinho Neto, to officially declare independence on November 11, 1975.

In 2018, an animated movie of the same name – quite faithfully based on this book – was made.

Why should you read it?

Why should Europeans care about a book which talks about Angola, an African country? Well, because it’s not just a report about Angola, and the struggle for Angolan independence is not just about Africa.

Kapuściński offers a window into what 1975 meant to the Portuguese people of Angola in all strata of society. Not only rich retailers and shop owners, but also middle-class workers and farmers. They were all forced to abandon their homes, fearing persecution. Almost 300,000 civilians left the former colony, with most of them going to the Portuguese mainland. Along with other expatriates, mainly from Mozambique, their sudden arrival created a huge problem in accommodating and employing them. They were known as the retornados. But a few remained, fighting alongside the MPLA. That’s the case of commander Farrusco, who the author met on the frontline in the south of the country.

So, Another Day in Life is also about the relations between Africa and Europe. It’s part of both African and European identities, regardless of what certain nationalist theories would like to propose.

And it’s not even just that. The book’s structure is divided between the author narrating his experience and his dispatches to the Polish Press Agency. This gives us an idea of what it meant to be the only Polish reporter in Africa at the time: being white, European, and from the socialist sphere. Risking his life at checkpoints, struggling with poor financial resources, but nonetheless carrying on with his work.

Thanks to its autobiographic nature, it is possible to read this book through the lens of multiple approaches, all precious. As a basis to learn about a historical period and its society. Being the subject of a case study on journalistic reports. As an adventurous tale. Or maybe, through an interdisciplinary approach blending all these together.

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Church, beers, dances – a quick summary of the so-called Kirmes. Like many European traditions, the origins of the festivities around the Kirmes go back to the Middle Ages, when the consecration of the church was first celebrated. From the 12th century onwards, the fair developed more into a popular festival where friends and family met, people got married, and disputes were settled. In addition, the Kirmes was the perfect opportunity to meet suitable spouses.

The term Kirmes was established in the Westerwald, a low mountain range on the right bank of the river Rhine in West Germany. It is a combination of the German words “Kirche” (“church”) and “Messe” (“fair”). However, Germany has many more regional names for this annual tradition, such as Kerwe, Kerb or, in Swiss German, Chilbi.

In the villages of the rural region of the Westerwald, the fair has a special status as an annual highlight. Sophie, a young woman from this area, gives some insight and explains why the Westerwälder Kirmes is an entertaining attraction for locals, curious guests, or world travellers on voyage of discovery.

Tree Crowns and Flower Hats: The Kirmes Traditions

“What makes Kirmes in the Westerwald so special is that there is still a lot of tradition, while in areas on the Rhine it is more like an Oktoberfest,” reports Sophie. As a rule, the villages’ celebrations take place during the summer months. To understand why the Westerwälder Kirmes is so rich in tradition, some specific terms must first be clarified.

The celebration of the consecration is mainly characterized by the Kirmesburschen (“Kirmes lads”) together with their Kirmesmädchen (“Kirmes girls”), a group of young people mostly between 16 and their early 20s. The Kirmesbursch wears a Kirmeshut (“Kirmes hat”), which can be individually decorated with colourful flowers. In Sophie’s village, a girl must be asked by a Kirmesbursch to be his Kirmesmädchen. “We always joke that the men are still in charge here. But other places are a few steps further and the girls can decide themselves.” However, participation is open to everyone. Therefore, it is not uncommon that also Muslim men and girls get to participate.

The boys and girls then take care of the Kirmesbaum (“Kirmes tree”), a symbol of fertility and growth. The trees are taken from the local forest and their crowns are colourfully decorated. On the weekend of the fair, the Kirmes couples move through the village. The men put the trees in front of the church, at the mayor’s house, and on the village square.

Shouts of Joy and Plays of Wind Music

The Kirmes-company is accompanied by brass band music, and disco fox and waltzes are danced under the flamboyant trees. Some villages have their own songs and flags. Another component of these parades is the so-called Juchezen, a deafening cheer. Both the Juchezen and the village’s songs must be rehearsed well in the months before the celebrations. In Sophie’s case, there is also the so-called Brunnentaufe: to the delight of many spectators, the Kirmesburschen are dragged into the village’s fountain to be “baptized”.

The folk festival character manifests itself in the afternoon on the fairground, with merchants and carousels for the children. The big party continues here in the evening and at night. On the Sunday and Monday, the religious part of the fair takes place with the services in the church whose consecration is celebrated so sumptuously.

Physical Distancing and Social Convergence

Since COVID-19 was the only one dancing around the houses this year, many cultural events had to be cancelled. In Sophie’s village, it was the first time this recurrence was cancelled since the end of the Second World War.

“There were no meetings and no visits to other villages’ fairs. On Saturday, there were small street get-togethers outside organised by the neighbourhoods, and the Kirmes-company went through the village to greet the residents – at least that gave you a little Kirmes-feeling. Moreover, the Kirmesburschen offered to go to the supermarket for the elderly during these troubled times.”

After this summer of ceased singing from the heart and dancing crowds, we can only hope than soon cherished traditions from all over the world can be celebrated as before, in Munich, Venice, or elsewhere. And lost wanderers will be more than welcome to Juchezen way yonder in the Western woods.

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In 2005, the European Commission stated that the EU could be open to enlargement talks with these three countries in the future. But just how European is Transcaucasia? While making definite statements on the blurry concept of European identity can be complicated, this article explores the existing cultural links between European countries and these three countries.

Languages of Transcaucasia: the horsemen of distinctness

Despite their proximity, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan share nothing in terms of language. All three derived from three different primary languages. Georgian, the literary and common language of the Kartvelian languages, is not known to be linked to any other language. It is one of the world’s primary languages by itself and has evolved within the same region since then. It is the direct descendant of proto-Kartvelian, which show some similar patterns to Indo-European, which might indicate an early interaction. However, the language remained very closed to foreign influence, despite the various occupations of the region. Georgians even have their own alphabet, only used by them.

Armenian is an independent and distant branch of the Indo-European languages. It is, however, closer to Iranian than any other European language. They also possess their very own alphabet.

Azerbaijan, the only country of the region using the Latin script, speaks a language part of the Turkic family. Despite the proximity to Turkey, Azerbaijani is closer to the Turkmen language than to Turkish.

Being an Indo-European language is not a prerequisite to be European. Hindi or Iranian languages do not make their country any more European. In the same way, Estonia, Finland, or Hungary speak Uralic languages, yet the countries are indisputably European. So, in terms of language, Transcaucasia’s linguistic culture has little to no links to Europe, having their very own cultural heritage.

The religious bond

While Christianity is not a European religion per se, European culture and heritage are highly influenced by Christianity. Georgia’s main religion is under the influence of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which shares close links with Eastern Europe and most of the Balkans. It also brought Georgia closer to Europe during History, when Christian powers allied to fight the common Islamic “enemy”. Today’s Apostolic Autocephalous Church of Georgia is in entire agreement with the rest of the Eastern Orthodox world. But Christianity is not the only religious link Georgia shares with Europe. The Georgian mythology, which preceded Christianity, had important influences from Greek mythology.

While Armenia is part of the Eastern Orthodoxy as well, it follows a different orientation, being the Oriental Orthodoxy. Unlike the Georgian Patriarchy, the Armenian Apostolic Church is not in full agreement with the Orthodox world and developed specific customs. A similar church would be Coptic Orthodox Church.

Finally, Azerbaijan has an overwhelming part of the population following Islam, with 85% of the population being Shi’a. While European culture is strongly influenced by Christianity, it is not limited by it, as shown by Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania or Kosovo which are Muslim in the majority.

Traditions and culture based on religious practices are overall very similar to Europe within the region. The only exception being Azerbaijan which does not have strong historical ties or cultural and religious exchanges with the rest of Europe.

Transcaucasia and its art

Another manifestation of culture, perhaps the most visible, is art. Religious buildings are, of course, influenced by Christianity in both Armenia and Georgia. Other building styles are distinctively Georgian or Armenian, but both are influenced in a way by Byzantine architecture, linking them to European culture. The Rustaveli Avenue in Tbilisi is distinctive for its Haussmann building style, showing that the country is turned towards Europe more than Asia or the Middle East.

The traditional music in Georgia is a unique mix of local polyphonic music inherited from Christianity, of middle eastern monophony and late European languages.

Persian culture, however, has greatly influenced the region as well. Not only it is the omnipresent influence in Azerbaijan, but it also influenced Georgia from the 12^th to the 19^th century. The ruling class was often raised in today’s Iran, and Jean Chardin noted in 1672 surprising similarities with the Persian world.

European heritage is visible in Transcaucasia and had an undeniable influence over the region. Despite how strong it may be in Georgia, or faint to non-existent in Azerbaijan, it remains a surprisingly unique region where local peculiarities mix with both European and Persian influences.

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Geography and Culture of Armenia

Armenia is a Eurasian country in the southern Caucasus, with Yerevan as its capital city. It covers 29,743 squared kilometres and has a population of 2,951,745 inhabitants. Armenia borders Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, Azerbaijan and the unrecognised Republic of Artsakh (formerly Nagorno-Karabakh) to the east, Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the south.

Armenian culture is fundamentally European, with some Eurasian influences. The advent of Christianity in the region during the 5th Century AD introduced writing to Armenia, replacing its archaic oral traditions. Prominent early founders of Armenian literature were Mastots and Sahak the Great. Another essential part of Armenian culture is music. Armenian orchestras are famous around the world, with Armenian music having incorporated many different genres, while still maintaining a traditional style.

Together with literature and music, the Armenian language is a very important part of Armenian culture. This language, commonly called hayeren, belongs to the Indo-European family, and it is spoken across the Caucasus and in other countries, as a result of the Armenian diaspora. As with every language, Armenian has evolved over the centuries. Classical Armenian held sway well into the 19th Century, but in the time since, Armenian has split into two different dialects, Eastern and Western Armenian respectively. Both dialects make use of Armenia’s traditional alphabet. The Eastern variant is spoken in Armenia proper, and is also popular with the Armenian community in Iran. Several linguistic minorities are widespread in the country, and a large part of the population speaks Russian as a second language.

Cuisine is a microcosm of Armenian culture, with a varied combination of flavours and aromas. Straddling Mediterranean and Asian influences, it includes vegetables, fruits, fish and, above all, spices. Bread in Armenian culture has always been considered the symbol of nourishment, which explains its central role, and why it’s baked in many different shapes and varieties. It is traditionally baked in the tonir, a terracotta-lined floor hearth. Finally, Armenia has a great tradition in the field of chess. To name the two most prominent names: Tigran Vartani Petrosyan, World Chess Champion from 1963 to 1969, and Levon Aronyan, two-time chess World Cup champion, in 2005 and 2017.

Society and Religion

According to the 2001 ethnic census, the majority of the population is Armenian, tallying 97.9%. Kurds account for 1.3% of the population, followed by Russians (0.5%) and other groups, including Assyrians, Ukrainians, Greeks and others. The Kurdish population belongs mainly to the Yazidi religious group. Because of the troubled history of this country, more Armenians live abroad than in Armenia itself. The country has around 3 million inhabitants, and statistics record more than 8 million Armenians living abroad, not including descendants of emigrants.

Armenia is a country with a Christian majority, and the Armenian Church boasts an ancient tradition. This is unsurprising, seeing as Armenia was the first nation in the world to adopt Christianity as an official religion in 301 AD. Strongly conservative and ritualistic, the Armenian Church is closely linked to the Coptic, Syriac Orthodox, and Orthodox tradition. There are small minorities of evangelical Protestants, as well as traditional cults. The Yazidis, who live in the western part of the country, practice “Yazidism”. The Azeris and many Kurds who once lived in the country practised Islam; however, many of them left Armenia following the conflict with Azerbaijan.

Economic Context

Armenia’s economic situation is rather peculiar. The primary sector employs 40% of the population. The main crops are wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, tobacco, vegetables, vines, and fruit. Sheep milk is used to make motal, Armenia’s traditional cheese. Despite the variety of produce, Armenia has to import large quantities of food, because local production is not able to meet the country’s needs. On the other hand, Armenia is a highly industrialised country. The industrial sector employs the majority of people, with food, paper, mechanical, electrical, textile, chemical, rubber, cement, and tobacco industries being particularly important.

In the energy sector, fuel from Russia is the country’s major power import, alongside gas and atomic fuel (for its nuclear power plant). The primary domestic power source is hydroelectricity. Small deposits of coal, gas, and oil still exist but were never well developed. In the tertiary sector, mountain tourism is very profitable. Overall, Armenia shows constant economic progress, increasing credibility and support from international organisations. Armenia joined the World Trade Organization in 2003. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and other foreign economic institutions are providing significant grants and loans.

Since 1993, loans destined to Armenia surpassed a total of $1.1 billion. These loans aim to reduce the budget deficit, and preserve the stabilisation of the currency. The development of private companies and businesses is also a major concern, as is strengthening the healthcare and education sectors. Last but not least, continuing reconstruction in earthquake-affected areas is an ongoing effort. Unemployment amounted to 18.5% in 2015, and it persists as a significant problem due to the stream of thousands of refugees from the Karabakh conflict.

State of relations between Armenia and EU

Armenia and the European Union have maintained a positive relationship throughout the years. They are linked through the Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement, signed in 2017. This agreement has deepened EU-Armenian ties, but it’s not expected to lead to an Association Agreement. Despite the fact that Armenia’s trade with EU Member States surpasses that with Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan combined, Armenia is highly dependent on Russia for questions of defence. The Nagorno-Karabakh War started in 1991 and ended in May 1994, but if the fighting itself has largely stopped, the crisis has continued to fester. This has forced Armenia more and more into Russia’s camp for its own survival. In this respect, Armenia perceives its membership in the Collective Security Treaty Organization as a counterbalance to US military entanglement in Azerbaijan.

A survey carried out in Yerevan in October 2006, however, showed that “as many as 72% of city residents believe, with varying degrees of conviction, that their country’s future lies with the EU rather than the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)”. Nevertheless, according to another survey of 2019, more than two-thirds of Armenians assumed that Armenia would not be prepared to join the EU in the next few years.

The Road Ahead

The Caucasus is in flux, both from a geopolitical and an economic standpoint. The roots of this instability are multiple: the conflicts dating back to the the 1990s, like the armed and political struggle between Azerbaijan and Armenia; the relationship between Armenia, Georgia, and Turkey; and the continued dominance of Russia in the area. In this complex context, enter China. Since the Caucasus is a crucial area for the Chinese New Silk Road, China could play a powerful role as an outsider and have great impact on the current balance of power.

The European Union’s influence looks, at the moment, well below expectations. The continued stagnation of talks with Turkey has diminished the EU’s ability to influence events in the Caucasus. Armenia’s existential need for military hardware and security guarantees means that its only two possible patrons are either Russia or NATO, rather than the EU. Therefore, while Armenians are at near consensus that their future is with the EU, it is difficult to translate this into a political reality. The situation looks, in a certain way, similar to the Serbian question. The future will depend on the future relations between the EU and Russia, and the EU and NATO, which are troubled and difficult in this new age of great power competition.

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Geography and Culture of Georgia

Georgia, located on the shores of the Black Sea, is on the line that separates Europe from Asia. From the historical-cultural point of view, Georgia belongs to Eastern Europe. Georgia borders Russia to the north and north-east, Turkey and Armenia to the south, Azerbaijan to the south-east, and the Black Sea to the west. It has a population of 3,718,200, and its capital is Tbilisi. It spans across 69 700 km².

Georgian culture is particularly varied. It is essentially a mix between Russian, Ottoman and European culture, with an additionally peculiar alphabet. Georgian literature’s period of splendour was the XII century with the Georgian national poem “The leopard-skinned knight” (Vepkhistkaosani) by Shota Rustaveli. People perform traditional music with panduri, an instrument similar to lute and guitar, and Georgian flutes. Traditional songs are hymns, love melodies, and heroic ballads.

The national cuisine (ქართული სამზარეულო) has both European and Middle Eastern influences.  It offers a variety of dishes with various herbs and spices. Each historical province of Georgia has its distinct traditional cuisine, such as Magrelian, Cachezian, and Imerezian. During the Supra festival, Georgians prepare a large assortment of dishes, always accompanied by a large number of wines.

As previously stressed, the Georgian alphabets are peculiar. Georgians use the three Georgian alphabets to write the Georgian language. Some minorities also use other alphabets such as Ossetian and Abkhazian. The word “alphabet” (ანბანი) derives from the union of the names of the first two letters of the three Georgian alphabets. Still, they are very different from each other.

Society and Religion

Georgians (including Mingreli, Svani, Laz, and Agiari) are around 83.8% of the current population of Georgia which is 3,661,493 (July 2006). The other main ethnic groups include Azeris, who are 6.5% of the population, Armenians – 5.7%, Russians – 1.5%, Abkhazians and Ossetians. Numerous other small ethnic groups also live in the country, including Assyrians, Chechens, Chinese, Georgian Jews, Greeks, Kabards, Kurds, Tatars, Turks, and Ukrainians. In particular, the Georgian Jewish community is one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world.

Georgia also exhibits significant linguistic diversity. Georgian, Laz, Mingrelian, and Svan are spoken within the Southern Caucasian family of languages. Southern Caucasian groups other than the Georgian ethnic ones often speak their native languages ​​along with Georgian. The official languages ​​of Georgia are Georgian and Abkhazian in the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian, the official language, is spoken by 71% of the population, 9% speak Russian, 7% Armenian, 6% Azerbaijani, and 7% other languages. Georgia’s literacy rate is around 100%.

More than 82% of Georgia’s population practices the Orthodox Christian confession, and the Georgian Orthodox Church is an influential institution in the country. After state atheism, imposed by the USSR when Georgia was part of the federation, sources today report that over 40% of Georgians are non-religious or atheists. Religious minorities in the country include Orthodox Russians (2%), Armenian Christians (3.9%), Muslims (9.9%), Roman Catholics (0.8%), as well as a considerable Jewish community and various Protestant minorities.

Economic Context

Throughout modern Georgian history, agriculture and tourism have been the driving forces of the Georgian economy due to the favourable climate and topography. For most of the 20th century, the Soviets imposed a planned economy on Georgia. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Georgia initiated major structural reforms designed to transition to a free-market economy. However, like so many other post-Soviet states, it faced severe economic collapse.

The civil and military war of the conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia aggravated the crisis. Agricultural and industrial production decreased, and in 1994, the GDP was reduced to a quarter of what it was in 1989. The first financial aid from the West came in 1995, when the World Bank and the IMF gave a credit of 206 million US dollars and Germany a loan of 50 million German marks. In 2001, 54% of the population did not earn enough to be above the national poverty line, but by 2006, this figure had fallen to 34%. In 2005, the average monthly income of a family was 347 lari (about 180 Euros).

Since the beginning of 2000, positive developments have been observed for Georgia’s economy. In 2007, the real GDP growth rate reached 12%, making Georgia one of the fastest-growing economies in Eastern Europe. Nevertheless, the country still has a relatively high unemployment rate (12.6%) and a low income compared to the European average. Georgia has gone from being “a near-failed state in 2003 to a relatively healthy market economy in 2014.”

According to the 2018 Transparency International report, Georgia is the least corrupt nation among those in the Black Sea region. It is also the only state in the area where the press is not “unfree”. Since 2014, Georgia has been part of the European Union’s Free Trade Area. The EU accounts for over a quarter of Georgia’s total trade turnover.

State of Relations Between Georgia and the EU

Georgia and the European Union have maintained relations since 1996, implemented in 2006 by the first 5-year Action Plan in the context of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP). In 2013, Tamar Beruchachvili, deputy minister for Georgia’s European and Euro-Atlantic integration took an important step. He stated that Georgia had no plans to join the customs union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia. Therefore, the following year, the association agreement was fully ratified by Georgia and all EU member states. On 18 December 2014, the European Parliament approved the association agreement. The vote tally was 490 votes in favour, 76 against and 57 abstentions. The agreement entered into force on 1 July 2016.

In 2019, President Zurabishvili stated that his country is ready to pursue negotiations on culture, education, transport, and economic issues, albeit in that it is not currently possible to become a full member of the European Union. Frightened by Russian proximity, Georgia sees in the West, indeed in the European Union, a guarantee, the security of peace and above all a perspective for the future. “We must enter from every door – said Zurabishvili – we must try every road, maybe even the less usual ones”. The idea the president had in mind is to recreate Europe in Georgia. Chapter by chapter, Georgia wants to comply, to apply European laws on its territory even if it is not formally a candidate country.

The Road Ahead

Georgia has shown huge economic but above all social and political resilience. It is one of the freest countries with respect to freedom of the press and corruption in the region. Georgia’s ruling class has expressed its desire to join the European Union since 2013.

Undoubtedly, however, the Caucasus region is undergoing different geopolitical thrusts. Increased Turkish influence, especially in neighbouring Azerbaijan and Russian influence, especially in Armenia. The Russian presence turned violent in the 2008 war when Vladimir Putin’s country bombed Georgian territory. The geopolitical situation could certainly be an obstacle for Georgia’s accession to the European Union. Membership in NATO would certainly improve the situation, and it is something that Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg has looked favourably upon.

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Common values

Sharing a common identity would not be possible without the existence of a shared set of values. This is an essential tenet of civic nationalism, and in many ways it’s part of the ontology of many different countries. To put it in very simplistic terms, the United States cherish the value of personal freedom, Canada the value of tolerance, Japan the value of hard work, and this works for any country on Earth. But the idea of a similar value-set acting as the cornerstone of European identity remains as hotly debated as it is vague.

The most common answers would be respect of human rights, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law, pluralism, tolerance, justice, etc. These values also appear in the Eurobarometer polls when asking Europeans what they personally value the most. As philosopher Claude Obadia wrote in an article for La Croix, these values follow three maxims: “First maxim: being proud of being democratic and secular. Second maxim: being proud of believing in dignity of the person without distinctions of sex, religion or opinion. Third maxim: assert that these values aren’t negotiable”. The third maxim explains perhaps why the European Union is inflexible when it comes to its values when its citizens are concerned in subjects such as Brexit.

One might argue that these values are more humanistic than European, and it is true that many countries across the globe share these ideals. However, geographical, political, historical and social context create significant differences in these values. Europeans have a more social approach to many questions (healthcare, transport, education, etc), are more liberal on social issues (abortion rights, death penalty, etc), believe strongly in multilateralism and international institutions, and support a much higher level of secularism within public spheres. Ecological concerns is also much higher within Europe than in other parts of the world, with 71% of European citizens thinking it is important to prioritise environmental protection, as shown by Eurobarometer polls.

Christian roots, History and common culture

European identity can also be partly defined by the continent’s past, as well as the modern cultures built on that legacy. While this is not an exhaustive list by any means, a number of developments left a lasting impression on the whole of, or at the very least most of Europe: Greek philosophy, Roman laws, Judeo-Christian spirituality, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and more.

Whether one adheres to Christianity or not, it is undeniable that its influence shaped Europe as it is today. For instance, even though Europe does not have any clear geographical border, people often refer to the continent as the geographical zone of Latin Christianism during the XI^th century. Indeed, “Christendom” was the first conception of a wider European political community. Moreover, the various Kings, Lords or other various leader of the time used religion as a way to gather unity around them and across their territory. And for a long time, clerks and other religious officials could cross the different territories carrying ideas regardless where they came from. This is a clear indicator that Christianity acted somewhat as a “supra-national” common identity, as much as supra-national makes sense in a feudal context, where polities were not nation-states.

On the flip side, religion also provided justification for plunging Europe into countless wars. The most famous example, the Thirty Years’ War, takes the unenviable prize of being one of the bloodiest pre-industrial wars in history. However, the end of the war saw Catholic France ally with Protestant rebels against the Catholic Habsburgs, proving that even religious wars were ultimately subordinated to the very secular concept of great power competition.. Finally, the peace of Westphalia (1648) put an end to such wars, reducing religious strife in Europe. It also created the European state system as we know it today, and its impact is still foundational to the present-day world.

However, this is only a part of the common European legacy. The Renaissance, for example, which was a European revolution in many ways saw the creation of modern concepts such as capitalism, market economy, representative and liberal democracy, nation-states, universities in the modern sense, etc. Without such a European event, the European Union as we know it would never have existed.

Common legacy and culture can also be explored further if one looks at the various languages across the continent. Almost all of them – with some notable exceptions – have Indo-European roots. But the goal is not to praise a common language that existed before the invention of writing, but to praise the diversity, the richness of multilingualism. Opening minds, understanding the language of a political neighbour and understanding the world through different lenses  can only help develop a deeper sense of belonging to Europe.

Neo-liberalism’s role in this identity

European integration and institution-building have also, over time, contributed to a new sense of identity. Initiatives such as the common market and Schengen, which ease movement between Member States and outright eliminate internal barriers, have had an impact. Photographs of peaceful country towns technically split in half by inter-European borders are numerous on the internet nowadays. The Euro furthers this sense of unity, the sense of a European community, and necessarily a European identity. Even after the Great Recession, the Greek economic implosion and the Euro debt crisis, this new identity did not falter. And while Brexit specifically challenges it, the EU presently seems to enjoy more internal cohesion than Great Britain does.

When it comes to European cultural projects that are instrumental to building a common identity, the Erasmus student exchange programme definitely takes the cake. By providing students from different backgrounds with the opportunity to access education anywhere in Europe, the programme has massively contributed to the creation of a kindred spirit among the youth.

European identity has been built on several European successes of the past few decades, chiefly on political stability and a high standard of living. Most national identities, even within Europe, are older – and largely based on language, culture, or history. The two identities can easily coexist, since they operate on entirely different levels. That is not always the case, and as Brexit has shown, opposition to a common European identity can also be a political rallying cry, although whether such a political exploit is possible on the mainland remains an unanswered question at present.

Every European Member State today is fertile ground for this European identity to develop. The European Union has proven to be a good catalyst for a shared set of civic values, around which most citizens of the continent are willing to gather together.

Guest article by Valentin Dantec. This content does not necessarily reflect the official opinion of My Country? Europe. Responsibility for the information and views expressed therein lies entirely with the author. 

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Geography and Culture of Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan is a Caucasian country. It spans across 86,600 km2 and is bordered in the north by Russia, in the north-west by Georgia and in the West by Armenia and Turkey. We consider the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the country’s territory. It has an estimated population of around 10,000,000 inhabitants. One of the fundamental features of Azerbaijani culture is architecture. In the capital, Baku, one can find many ancient Persian-styled medieval architectural treasures like the Sirvan shah’s palace. Nevertheless, another symbol of the city are the three Flame Towers that have become the symbol of the country’s modernisation.

Azerbaijan is also among the first countries in the world to be involved in cinematography. The first movie industry of the country, in fact, dates back to 1898. Even Azerbaijani music forms a key part of the national culture. National musical instruments include 14 string instruments, 6 wind and 8 percussions. Azerbaijani music is closer to Persian style rather than Turkish.

The national cuisine is also diverse. One of the most famous dishes is plov: rice served with saffron and various herbs that can be mixed in more than 40 recipes. In addition, several varieties of kebabs and shashlik are common, including the special baliq (fish) kebab. Like in Turkey and other Middle Eastern countries, black tea is the national drink. Another symbol of the country is the pomegranate. Every year, a Pomegranate Festival is held in the city of Goychay in October. Special dishes are prepared for the Novruz; a family holiday derived from the traditional Iranian festival, Novruz Bayram.

Society and Religion

According to the last census, 91.60% of the people are ethnically Azerbaijanis. Lezgins, a population who descend from groups that used to inhabit the Southern Dagestan region in the Bronze Age and who are influenced by Central Asia, constitute 2% of the total population. This same group have a high percentage of DNA similar to a group of people located in Pakistan.

Armenians comprise of 1.35% of the population, and almost all of them live in the disputed Azerbaijani territory of Nagorno-Karabakh; disputed with Armenia. The official language, Azerbaijani, is spoken by more than 90% of the population, while in the Nagorno Karabakh, Russian and Armenian are spoken, which are the mother tongues of 3% of the population. 97% of the population are Muslims: 85% Shia and 15% Sunni.

Nevertheless, Azerbaijan is rarely featured in the “Shia Alliance” from a geopolitical point of view. According to Article 48 of its Constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state. In a poll dating from 2008, only 21% of people affirmed that religion is an essential part of their life. Christians make up 3.1% of the population and are primarily Armenia, Russian or Georgian.

Economic Context

After gaining independence in 1991, Azerbaijan joined the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Islamic Development Bank, and the Asian Development. Approximately two-thirds of the territory of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and methane, which are driving forces of the local economy. However, this driving force is not a contemporary trend.

Beginning in the 10th-century A.D., several historians and travellers like Ahmed Al-Belaruri, Abu-Ishag Istekhri, Abu-d-Gasan Ali Masudi and lastly, Marco Polo, mentioned the oil trade of Azerbaijan. In addition, the region of the Lesser Caucasus is abundant in gold, silver, iron, titanium and cobalt. A leading national company remains the SOCAR – the State Oil Company of the Azerbaijan Republic – which, in 1994, signed a 30-year contract with 13 other oil companies. The oil production led to a remarkable 26.4% growth of the GDP in 2005, which was the second-best GDP in the world at the time and by 34.6% the following year, registering the world’s highest GDP growth in 2006.

Economic reforms led the country to a general macroeconomic stabilisation. In 2008, Azerbaijan was mentioned among the 10 top reformers by the World Bank’s Doing Business Report. Since 2014, things have started to worsen: the collapse of the price of oil decreased state revenues. Last year, the currency was devalued twice and the inflation has grown considerably. Nevertheless, according to the same report published in 2019, the country improved its position in the “Ease of Doing Business Rank” reaching the 25th position at the global level.

State of Relations Between Azerbaijan and the EU

The relations between the European Union and Azerbaijan are governed by the European Neighborhood Policy and the Eastern Partnership. Azerbaijan is also part of the Council of Europe. In 1996, the EU and Azerbaijan signed the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA). Azerbaijan joined the Council of Europe in 2001, which represented the closer ties between the country and the EU.

Since 2004, Azerbaijan has been part of the European Neighbourhood Policy while it joined the Eastern Partnership in 2009. The European Union represents the country’s first commercial partner; representing 48.6% of the country’s trade. The export rate to the EU amounts to 60.7% – mainly oil and gas – of the total export, while the import rate amounts to 31.8% of the total trade – primarily machinery. In 2012, Baku hosted the Eurovision Song Contest and in 2014 the European Games.

Since 2013 there has been an agreement on the facilitation of visas, which was signed in Vilnius and officially became active on September 1 that year. It is valid for all countries except for the UK, Denmark and Ireland. The agreement states that visas are free for students, researchers, children and other special groups of citizens. Another Protocol, adopted in 2016, enabled Azerbaijan’s participation in EU Programmes through partnerships regarding infrastructure and oil extraction. Energy policy is among the strongest points of the cooperation between the EU and Azerbaijan.

The Pipeline Projects

The primary project is the Southern Gas Corridor Pipeline, which is an expansion of the South-Caucasus pipeline from Azerbaijan to Turkey, the Trans-Anatolian Pipeline and the Trans-Adriatic Pipeline, which, from Turkey, delivers gas to Italy through Greece and Albania. The Southern Gas Corridor involves 7 governments and 11 companies. Azerbaijan also supplies around 5% of the EU’s total demand for oil. However, in September 2015, the EU Parliament approved a resolution accusing Azerbaijan of violating human rights, highlighting that “peaceful protesters have been forbidden to protest in central Baku since 2006” and that journalists are subject “to constant intimidation and attacks”.

The Road Ahead

Azerbaijan is a strategic partner for the EU, above all for the energy supply, but also from a geopolitical point of view. Oil and gas supply are crucial for reducing Europe’s dependence on Russian gas.

Relations between Azerbaijan and Russia, despite trade increasing, have been tense for some time, mainly due to Russian support for Armenia in the conflict between Armenians and Azeris for the control of Nagorno Karabakh. What is most worrying about Azerbaijan is Russian aggression outside its national borders, as demonstrated by the recent attacks on Georgia and Ukraine. From this point of view, the West has an interest in Azerbaijan not falling under the control of Russia, which happened in Armenia, for example.

Moreover, the country is a strategic partner in counter-terrorism operations. Azerbaijan is the only government in the Caucasus, which is committed with the West to fight the Islamic State. The European Union has become increasingly critical of the alleged human rights violations of the government of Aliyev, who has been in power since 2003, even if there have not yet been significant breaks or positions taken.

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Manx, Gaelg Vanninagh, belongs to Celtic language family and is spoken on the Isle of Man in the heart of the Irish Sea. The island with about 80,000 inhabitants is subordinate to the British crown, but it is neither part of the UK nor the EU. Instead, the island is in a customs union for goods with Great Britain and the EU.

Of Irish mother and Norse father

In a time before tariff unions and Brexit talks, Druids from the West and Vikings from the East settled on the Isle of Man. Around 500 AD, during the Irish expansion phase, the Celtic winds carried Old Irish speakers to the shores of the Isle of Man. In the 8th century, the Norsemen came and conquered the isle, influencing its topography. This Northern mix brought Manx to life. The earliest documentation dates back to the 17th century, such as the agenda of the Anglican Church, the Book of Common Prayer.

Centuries later, in 1765, when the United Kingdom annexed the island, the growing dominance of English weakened the local language. During the 19th century, Manx speakers grew more and more indifferent to their mother tongue, choosing instead to speak English. The introduction of compulsory schooling in 1872, which mandated English as the sole language for education, meant that the fate of Manx was set in stone. Parents stopped raising their children to be bilingual, which led to a radical decrease in native speakers. In 1974, the last native speaker, a fisherman named Ned Maddrell, passed away – and with him a precious part of the Northern European heritage.

From Unescapable Agony to Unforeseen Resurrection

Manx-enthusiasts bemoaned the slow death of the language. One of them was Brian Stowell. Before Maddrell’s death, he recorded tapes to safeguard pronunciation, and preserve the ashes of a then presumed dead tongue. His effort facilitated significantly the study of this language. It was one of the first revitalisation measures.

Another resuscitation attempt came from the top. In 1985, an official resolution of the Tynwald, the island’s Parliament, officially recognised Manx for the first time, albeit to a limited extent. The Coonceil ny Gaelgey, a Manx Gaelic Advisory Board, was established, together with the Manx Heritage Foundation, the Culture Vannin. This standardised the official use of the language and provided translations services. Soon, bilingualism among children was breathing new young life into the language. Nowadays, the Bunscoill Ghaelgagh elementary school in St. Johns, is notorious for teaching in Manx only.

Moreover, in 2015 the Department of Education, Sport and Culture (DESC) and Culture Vannin established the Manx Language Network. The network seeks to develop ideas on the future and maintenance of this language. For instance, it published The Manx Language Strategy 2017-2021 and the Action Plan on its website.

Technology and social media also played a role in revitalising the language. Adrian Cain, for instance, is a dedicated Manx tweeter and promotes the language on YouTube. Additionally, the Culture Vannin developed a free language learning app in 2013 – an example of modern tools reviving ancient languages.

Is Manx a Flourishing Yet Fading Celtic Flower?

Despite all these efforts, the future of Manx is still uncertain – and downright endangered. Even though the number of people using Manx as a second language is growing, there are no real native speakers. In 2015, approximately 1800 people knew Manx, 2% of the total island’s population. We can say that the language is indeed alive, but still not well enough. Only the future can tell if and when the first Manx babies will speak their first word in Manx.

However, the life and death, rebirth and growth of the Manx language demonstrate that obscure and lost tongues can, in fact, be rescued. With its Irish and Norse family tree, it is more than welcome back at the large European languages family table.

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